References

References: Chapter 24 · What Must Be Done

  1. U.S. EPA. Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP) overview and Tier 1 screening order lists.
  2. U.S. EPA. TSCA Chemical Substance Inventory.
  3. NIEHS. Endocrine Disruptors (health topic).
  4. US GAO, 'Chemical Regulation: Options Exist to Improve EPA's Ability to Assess Health Risks and Manage Its Chemical Review Program,' GAO-05-458, 2005.
  5. Wilson MP, Schwarzman MR, 'Toward a New US Chemicals Policy,' Environ Health Perspect 117(8):1202-1209, 2009.
  6. U.S. EPA. Summary of the Toxic Substances Control Act (enacted 1976).
  7. Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 (legislative overview).
  8. Toxic Substances Control Act, 15 U.S.C. 2601 et seq. (Pub. L. 94-469, 1976), Section 6.
  9. U.S. GAO. Chemical Regulation: Options Exist to Improve EPA's Ability to Assess Health Risks and Manage Its Chemical Review Program (GAO-05-458) (2005).
  10. Frickel S, Elliott JR, et al. The unsteady state and inertia of chemical regulation under the US Toxic Substances Control Act. PLOS Biology / PMC5734679 (2017).
  11. Vogel SA, Roberts JA. Why the Toxic Substances Control Act needs an overhaul, and how to strengthen oversight of chemicals in the interim. Health Affairs 30(5):898-905 (2011).
  12. Chemistry World, 'Explainer: Toxic Substances Control Act'
  13. Wikipedia, 'Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976' (citing EPA inventory)
  14. EWG, 'How American Industry Skips Some Chemical Safety Checks'
  15. U.S. GAO. Chemical Regulation: Observations on Improving the Toxic Substances Control Act (GAO-13-249, 2013).
  16. U.S. EPA. Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act (2016 TSCA amendments).
  17. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. About the TSCA Chemical Substance Inventory. EPA.gov.
  18. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. TSCA Inventory dataset. Data.gov catalog record.
  19. Maffini MV, et al. 'Looking back to look forward: a review of FDA's food additives safety assessment and recommendations for modernizing its program.' Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 12(4):439-453 (2013).
  20. Vogel SA. 'The politics of plastics: the making and unmaking of bisphenol A safety.' Am J Public Health 99(Suppl 3):S559-S566 (2009).
  21. Frickel S, Elliott JR, et al. The unsteady state and inertia of chemical regulation under the US Toxic Substances Control Act. PMC5734679 (2017).
  22. U.S. GAO. Toxic Substances: EPA Has Increased Efforts to Assess and Control Chemicals but Could Strengthen Its Approach (GAO-13-249) (2013).
  23. IQVIA Institute for Human Data Science. Global Oncology Trends 2023: Outlook to 2027.
  24. Grandjean P, Bellanger M. Calculation of the disease burden associated with environmental chemical exposures. Environmental Health 16:123 (2017).
  25. U.S. EPA. The Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act.
  26. Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act, Public Law 114-182 (2016).
  27. Congress.gov. 'H.R.2576 — Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act,' 114th Congress (2015-2016), roll-call votes.
  28. GovTrack.us. Toxic Substances Control Act / H.R.2576 voting records.
  29. Kortenkamp A, Backhaus T, Faust M, State of the Art Report on Mixture Toxicity, report to the European Commission (Study Contract 070307/2007/485103/ETU/D.1), 2009
  30. U.S. EPA, Framework for Cumulative Risk Assessment, EPA/630/P-02/001F, 2003
  31. EPA Office of Inspector General. The EPA's January 2021 PFBS Toxicity Assessment Did Not Uphold the Agency's Commitments to Scientific Integrity and Information Quality, Report No. 23-E-0013 (March 7, 2023).
  32. EPA OIG report landing page (Oversight.gov).
  33. EPA Office of Inspector General. Report No. 23-P-0026 (Aug 2, 2023).
  34. Lerner S. EPA scientists say their bosses retaliated against them. The Intercept, Aug 1, 2022 (PEER whistleblower disclosures).
  35. EPA Office of Inspector General. Report No. 24-N-0061 (Sept 2024).
  36. Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility (PEER). EPA scientists punished for identifying chemical risks (2021 whistleblower disclosures).
  37. Lerner S. Whistleblowers Expose Corruption in EPA Chemical Safety Office. The Intercept (July 2, 2021).
  38. U.S. EPA (2002). A Review of the Reference Dose and Reference Concentration Processes (EPA/630/P-02/002F).
  39. Vandenberg LN et al. (2012). Hormones and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: low-dose effects and nonmonotonic dose responses. Endocrine Reviews, 33(3), 378-455.
  40. Howard-Jones N. "Robert Koch and the cholera vibrio: a centenary." BMJ 288(6414):379-381, 1984.
  41. "Vibrio cholerae." Wikipedia.
  42. US FDA, 'Indirect Food Additives: Polymers,' 77 Fed. Reg. 41899 (July 17, 2012).
  43. Tavernise S, 'F.D.A. Makes It Official: BPA Can't Be Used in Baby Bottles and Cups,' New York Times, July 17, 2012.
  44. U.S. Census Bureau, '2020 Census Apportionment Results,' 26 April 2021 (331,449,281 resident population).
  45. U.S. Census Bureau, 'U.S. and World Population Clock.'
  46. The National WWII Museum. 'Research Starters: Worldwide Deaths in World War II' (total ~70-85 million).
  47. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 'World War II: Costs of the war' (aggregating national archival and demographic sources).
  48. 'Atrazine,' Wikipedia.
  49. Atrazine Executive Summary for Draft Biological Evaluation, U.S. EPA (EPA-HQ-OPP-2018-0762-0026).
  50. 'Atrazine, an endocrine-disrupting herbicide banned in Europe, is widely used in the U.S.,' U.S. Right to Know.
  51. Commission Decision 2004/248/EC concerning the non-inclusion of atrazine in Annex I to Directive 91/414/EEC.
  52. U.S. Geological Survey. Pesticide National Synthesis Project: Estimated Annual Agricultural Pesticide Use (Atrazine).
  53. U.S. EPA. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (2026).
  54. U.S. EPA. Atrazine program page (updated Oct 7, 2025).
  55. Commission Decision 2004/248/EC concerning the non-inclusion of atrazine in Annex I to Directive 91/414/EEC and the withdrawal of authorisations.
  56. Hamilton BE, Martin JA, Osterman MJK, 'Births: Final Data for 2022,' National Vital Statistics Reports 73(2), CDC/NCHS, 2024.
  57. CDC/NCHS, 'FastStats - Births and Natality,' National Center for Health Statistics.
  58. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. Births and Natality (FastStats).
  59. Hamilton BE, et al. Births: Provisional Data. National Vital Statistics Rapid Release, CDC/NCHS.
  60. U.S. Geological Survey. Estimated Annual Agricultural Pesticide Use — Atrazine (Pesticide National Synthesis Project).
  61. Environmental Working Group (2017/2015 analysis). Atrazine in drinking water reaching ~30 million Americans.
  62. Hamilton BE et al. Births: Provisional Data for 2022. National Vital Statistics Rapid Release No. 28. CDC/NCHS, 2023 (3,667,758 births).
  63. CDC/NCHS. Births and Natality, FastStats.
  64. USGS Pesticide National Synthesis Project, Estimated Annual Agricultural Pesticide Use — Atrazine (1992-2019).
  65. U.S. EPA atrazine usage analysis, 2013-2017 annual average ~72 million pounds (mirrored via USRTK).
  66. Commission Decision 2004/248/EC of 10 March 2004 concerning the non-inclusion of atrazine in Annex I to Council Directive 91/414/EEC and the withdrawal of authorisations. EUR-Lex.
  67. Sass JB, Colangelo A. European Union bans atrazine, while the United States negotiates continued use. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 12(3):260-267, 2006.
  68. EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM). Risk to human health related to the presence of perfluoroalkyl substances in food. EFSA Journal 18(9):6223 (2020).
  69. EFSA news release. PFAS in food: EFSA assesses risks and sets tolerable intake (17 September 2020).
  70. Karvelas M, Katsoyiannis A, Samara C. 'Occurrence and fate of heavy metals in the wastewater treatment process.' Chemosphere 53(10):1201-1210, 2003.
  71. US EPA. 'Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Sampling and Analysis Technical Report.' EPA-822-R-08-016, 2009.
  72. Brandt AM. 'Inventing Conflicts of Interest: A History of Tobacco Industry Tactics.' American Journal of Public Health 102(1):63-71 (2012).
  73. Oreskes N, Conway EM. Merchants of Doubt. Bloomsbury Press, 2010.
  74. Gore AC, et al. 'EDC-2: The Endocrine Society's Second Scientific Statement on Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals.' Endocr Rev 36(6):E1-E150, 2015.
  75. Woodruff TJ, Zota AR, Schwartz JM. 'Environmental chemicals in pregnant women in the United States: NHANES 2003-2004.' Environ Health Perspect 119(6):878-885, 2011.
  76. Rice D & Barone S Jr, 'Critical periods of vulnerability for the developing nervous system: evidence from humans and animal models,' Environmental Health Perspectives 108(suppl 3): 511–533, 2000.
  77. Grandjean P & Landrigan PJ, 'Neurobehavioural effects of developmental toxicity,' The Lancet Neurology 13(3): 330–338, 2014.
  78. Knapp EA, Kress AM, Parker CB, Page GP, McArthur K, Gachigi KK, et al. The Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO)-Wide Cohort. American Journal of Epidemiology 192(8):1249-1263, 2023.
  79. ECHO Program — NIH (Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes).
  80. NIH. Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) Program (official program page).
  81. Characteristics of ECHO Cohorts Recruited During Pregnancy (PMC8225566).
  82. NIH. ECHO Program — outcome focus areas (pre/peri/postnatal; airway; obesity; neurodevelopment; positive health).
  83. Blaisdell CJ et al. (2022). The NIH ECHO Program: investigating how early environmental influences affect child health. Pediatric Research 92:1215-1216.
  84. Blaisdell CJ et al. (2022). The NIH ECHO Program. Pediatric Research 92:1215-1216.
  85. NIH. ECHO Program (official page): >60,000 children in Cycle 1.
  86. NIH ECHO Cohort Data Analysis Center and biospecimen repository documentation.
  87. Honig D et al., 'Prosocial motives underlie scientific censorship by scientists: A perspective and research agenda,' PNAS 120(48):e2301642120, 2023.
  88. Maffini MV & Vandenberg LN, 'Failure to Launch,' Frontiers in Toxicology 4:908439, 2022.
  89. Rose G. 'Sick individuals and sick populations.' Int J Epidemiol 14(1):32-38, 1985.
  90. Rothman KJ, Greenland S. 'Causation and causal inference in epidemiology.' Am J Public Health 95(Suppl 1):S144-S150, 2005.
  91. NIH Office of Budget. NIH Budget (FY appropriations, ~$47-48 billion).
  92. NICHD. National Children's Study Archive (project history and budget).
  93. Attina TM, Hauser R, Sathyanarayana S, et al. Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the USA: a population-based disease burden and cost analysis. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 4(12):996-1003 (2016).
  94. NYU Langone Health. Disease Burden and Costs Due to Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals.
  95. Attina TM, et al. Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the USA: a population-based disease burden and cost analysis. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 4(12):996-1003 (2016).
  96. Grandjean P, Bellanger M. Calculation of the disease burden associated with environmental chemical exposures. Environmental Health 16(1):123 (2017).
  97. Trasande L, et al. Burden of disease and costs of exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals in the European Union: an updated analysis. Andrology 4(4):565-572 (2016).
  98. Bellanger M, Demeneix B, Grandjean P, Zoeller RT, Trasande L. Neurobehavioral Deficits, Diseases, and Associated Costs of Exposure to Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in the European Union. JCEM 100(4):1256-1266 (2015).
  99. Maffini MV, Vandenberg LN. Failure to Launch: The Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Frontiers in Toxicology 4:908439 (2022). PMID 35707496.
  100. Krimsky S. The unsteady state and inertia of chemical regulation under the US Toxic Substances Control Act. PLoS Biology 15(12):e2002404 (2017).
  101. OpenSecrets (2023). Facing new attempts to regulate toxic substances, the chemical industry's lobbying expenses skyrocketed in 2022 ($65.9 million).
  102. OpenSecrets. Chemical & Related Manufacturing Lobbying Profile (industry summary, multi-year).
  103. Erickson BE, 'Tests Of Endocrine Disruptors Delayed,' Chemical & Engineering News 86(38), 2008.
  104. OpenSecrets. Chemical & Related Manufacturing industry lobbying totals; 'Facing new attempts to regulate toxic substances, the chemical industry's lobbying expenses skyrocketed in 2022' (2023).
  105. Maffini MV, Vandenberg LN. Failure to Launch: The Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program at the US Environmental Protection Agency. Frontiers in Toxicology 4:908439 (2022).
  106. OpenSecrets. Chemical & Related Manufacturing: Lobbying (from LDA filings).
  107. Alexander RM, Mazza SW, Scholz S. Measuring Rates of Return for Lobbying Expenditures: An Empirical Case Study of Tax Breaks for Multinational Corporations. Journal of Law and Politics 25:401 (2009).
  108. US Senate Office of Public Records. Lobbying Disclosure Act database.
  109. OpenSecrets.org. 'Chemical & Related Manufacturing' industry profile.
  110. FDA. Regulations Restricting the Sale and Distribution of Cigarettes and Smokeless Tobacco to Protect Children and Adolescents, 75 FR 13225 (final rule, March 19, 2010).
  111. EBSCO Research Starters: Vending machines and American marketing.
  112. Ndaw S et al. (2016). Occupational exposure of cashiers to bisphenol A via thermal paper: urinary biomonitoring study. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 89:935-946.
  113. Hormann AM et al. (2014). Holding Thermal Receipt Paper and Eating Food after Using Hand Sanitizer Results in High Serum Bioactive and Urine Total Levels of BPA. PLOS ONE 9(10):e110509.